Detailing Science

Genetic material governs the inheritance of traits from one generation to the next as well as it is able to express its effects through the formation and functioning of the traits. It stores biological information in the coded form. The genetic material should have the following characteristics : 1. It should be able to precisely duplicate itself, forming its carbon copies. This is called replication. 2. It should be able to faithfully pass its copies into the progeny. 3. It should be able to occasionally undergo mutations to allow adaptation and evolution to occur in the organism. 4. It should be able to store information in the coded form for the control of biological functions of the cells. 5. It should be able to express its information in the progeny. In addition to all these characteristics, genetic material should be present in every cell and it should show diversity. There was a lot of controversy about the nature of genetic material. Earlier proteins were considered as the gen...

A large number of diseases occur on various crops. These diseases may be caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and other pathogensStem rusts, white rusts, smuts, blights, wilts downy mildews, powdery mildews, cankers etc. are of the important diseases. Symptoms, causal organisms, etiology and control measures of some of the more common diseases are discussed in this chapter. DISEASES CAUSED BY FUNGI 1. LATE BLIGHT OF POTATO Late blight of potato was initially an endemic disease of South America. Because of quick transportation this disease spread to U.S.A. and Europe in 1830-1840. This disease caused famous Irish Famine in 1845-1846 where it caused havoc in potato fields and completely destroyed the potato crop andresulted in the death and migration of millions of people. In India the disease first appeared in Nilgiri hills between 1870-1880. Then it was reported from Darjelling. Because of high temperature in the plains, the disease did not appear in the plains of India. It appeared for ...

All the living organisms are composed of cells. They grow and reproduce. The growth and development of every living organism depends upon the growth and multiplication of the constituent cells. Unicellular bacteria which are minute and microscopic, alligators and the weeds which are giant sized, produce offspring like themselves and pass on to them the hereditary information that makes them what they are. In unicellular organisms, cell division is the of reproduction. Multicellular organisms develop from a single cell, the zygote, which is formed by the fusion of preceding cells, the gametes. The ways by which new cells originate have been thoroughly investigated, only after 1846 when Nageli pointed out that new cells are always formed through the division of pre-existing cells. Rudolf Virchow (1855) supported the above idea and investigated the process of cell division. R. Virchow gave the first modifcation of cell- theory. He gave the statement 'Omnis cellulae cellula', which...

The laws that govern the physical and chemical phenomena of non-living bodies are rigid and no deviations or exceptions are noticed. Although, physical and chemical phenomena are associated with life processes, the laws of physical and chemical phenomena are not always followed in their true sense, because, life-forms exhibit enormous variations and adaptations in their functions. Life-forms are constantly evolving and changing in forms and functions to get advantage. As a result of this, variations in the laws that govern the phenomena of life functioning are observed.Therefore, biologist must be prepared to accept exceptions of laws and principles.                 Some examples of such exceptions are given below: 1. Euglena has both plant characters as well as animal characters. They lack cell wall, but bear chloroplasts. 2. Viruses do not observe definite set rules of living being. 3. Mangrove produces respiratory roots (pneuma...

Chromatography is applied for separation of one or more biological compounds from a mixture of such compounds. Chromatography is based on two phases of the compounds. One is the stationary phase and the other is the mobile phase. The stationary phase may be solid, gel, liquid or solid liquid mixture. The mobile phase may be liquid or gases which flow over the stationary phase. In paper chromatography, the cellulose fibres of, the paper is the stationary phase, in thin layer cromatography, the thinly coated gel on plate is the stationary phase and in column chromatography, the packed glass or metal column acts stationary phase. The differential solubility ability of the individual compounds in the stationary and mobile phase is the basis of separation of compounds. The specific solvents solublise the compounds and when it moves along the stationary phase it carries with it the compounds of differential solubility. The ratio of the distance travelled by the solvent and the compounds of d...

There is no such claim in the science that every natural phenomenon has been discovered and fully analysed. There are certain fields of science where knowledge is only preliminary. Knowledge about scientific phenomena has been increasing day by day. There is nothing like 'ultimate truth'or final proof. Everything is likely to get changed with new findings of research. Science does not believe in God and in supernatural powers. Rather, it deals with natural phenomena. Religion and science should not be mixed. Religion is a matter of faith and faith cannot be verified or can not be put to experimentation. Careers to Biologists There are so many disciplines closely related to biology. With a sound background and good knowledge of biology one can choose any one of the following fields :-- 1. Anthropology—The science of man and mankind. 2. Agronomy--Management of  crop production. 3. Pathology-The science concerning various diseases, their causes, symptoms, effects and control measu...

1. MICROSCOPY Microscope is the single most important tool in the study of biology. The existence of cell was known only after the invention of microscope. The cells and all other cellinclusions are so small that they cannot be perceived by naked eye. It was only after the invention of microscope the wonderful world of microorganisms was brought to our notice. The rapid progress in understanding the most complicated biological processes in recent years has been made possible due to application of modern technology in microscopy. Our knowledge about the cell and cell functions are not the same as was known only 10 years back and it will not remain as it is today. Hence there is a direct relationship between the progress in microscopy and the progress and refinement of our knowledge of the science of biology and other branches of science. TYPES OF MICROSCOPE:---- All earlier microscopes were of the simplest forms of the light microscopes. In modern times many improvements have been made ...

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS IN BIOLOGICAL STUDIES:--------- Biological studies concerning cellular, biochemical,  physiological, genetical, environmental aspects etc. Require skillful techniques minute observation and analytical ability.            Biological studies mainly concerned with cells and cell constituents. The techniques in cell biology include microscopy, staining, cell fractionation, tissue culture, biochemical analysis, biophysical test etc. Any study involving cellular aspect must take the help of suitable microscope to investigate the cellular composition. Cells are generally transparent and therefore the cells and cell contains or not properly resolved unless the cells are suitably stained. Varied types of stains and staining techniques are available today. Open cells are properly fixed using fixing techniques before staining. What study of cellular arrangement aur tissue composition it may be necessary to cut him section of the plant or anim...

WHY TO STUDY BIOLOGY?  Biology, study of life and living organism is a vast subject encompassing everything that are associated with our living and understanding of other living organism that surround us. For our survival growth and development it is essential to learn how life functions not only in our cells but in other form of life also. The process of life functioning is so Complex that queries made generation after generation have failed to answer some question satisfactorily. Think about how we live,  work and reproduce thousands of queries will strike to our mind. Similarly if with him about other organism their lives and activities their roles in our affairs of day to day life will give rise to thousand of more queries. Satisfactory answer to this queries must be found out so that we can live better. Our proper understanding about life processes and the matter that regulate our life,  the intricate manner in which all living organisms in remaining interlinked grow...

Branches of Applied Biology.  When the knowledge acquired through basic studies is applied for economic purpose other welfare activities it becomes applied knowledge. Applied biology has now attained a very important position in scientific world. Many recent discoveries in Biology have far-reaching importance for mankind. A non significant branch of science only 30 years back has now achieve significant breakthrough in its variety field. It now regarded as one of the very important branches of science engaged in human welfare activities.                                            Some of the branches are applied biology are--- Agronomy, horticulture, plant and animal genetics, microbiology, Pathology, pharmacology, silviculture, entomology, parasitology, pisciculture, Apiculture, dairy and poultry, Sericulture, lac culture, sponge culture, pearl culture.     ...

BRANCHES OF FUNDAMENTAL BIOLOGY---- 1.Morphology. (Morpho=form or shape)  2.Anatony. (Ana=as under, Temnin=cut)  3.Histology. (Histos=tissue)  4.Cytology. (Kytos=cell)  5.Cell Biology.  6.Molecular Biology.  7.Physiology. (Physis=nature of life)  8.Genetics. (Genesis=origin)  9.Taxonomy. (taxis=arrangement)  i. Identification.  ii.Nomenclature.  iii.Classification.  10.Ecology. (oikos=house)  11.Evolution. (E=out, Volvo=cell)  12.Embryology. (Em=en, Bryo=swell)  13.Palaeontology. (Palaios=fossil, ancient)  14.Economic Biology.  15.Pathology. (Pathos=trouble)  16.Biogeography. (Bios=life, geo=earth, graphein=to write)  17.Exobiology.  18.Eugenics. (Eu=well, genos=birth)  19.Euthenics.  20.Euphenics.  21.Ethology.  22.Ethnology.  23.Ctetology.  24.Teratology.  25.Immunology.  26.Toxicology.  27.Cybernetics.  28.Aerobiology.  29.Limnolog...

One may wonder why there are innumberable varieties of life form we have not yet ascertained the role of everyone of them. But definitely, they are not without any use to the living system that the earth supports. Biologists are busy to find out the characteristics of all these varied form of life and their role and utility. There are various aspects of study which required specialised knowledge to establised their characteristics accordingly various branches of biology have emerged. Each branch deal which specialised aspects of study. All these aspects again can be divided into two broad aspects, viz, fundamental aspects and applied aspects.                                                    Every branch of science has to aspects, pure and applied. Pure science deals with understanding of various phenomena. It is not involved in the wellfare of man kind. App...

Metabolism have two types of chemical reaction in the metabolism_ constructive metabolism or anabolism e.g photosynthesis.    And destructive metabolism or catabolism e.g respiration in which organic food is broken down into simpler substances ANABOLISM:- 1.Formative or synthetic process.  2.Simpler one are converted into complex materials.  3.Energy is stored.  4.Anabolism is used for growth maintenance and storage.  5.Fewer types of precursors form diverse products.  CATABOLISM:- 1.Catabolism is breakdown or destructive process.  2.Complex substances are converted into simpler ones.  3.Energy is released.  4.Catabolism is required for performing various activities of living beings.  5.Many types of larger substances breakdown to form fewer types of simipler molecules.                                              ...

No single feature can set living objects apart from non-living objects how ever living organism have some feature common amongst themselves. Organisms are very diversed in there shapes and sizes, modes of living, preference of habitats, preference of food and functioning of the live processes. It is diffcult to find commonness in them but a dipper look will un fold that they are basically alike.  Living organism have some common feature such as: 1.Definite shape and size 2.Organization 3.co-ordination 4.protoplasm 5.cellular structure 6.growth and development 7.movements 8.metabolism 9.sensitivity or irritabillity 10.excretion 11.individuality 12.healing 13.regeneration 14.adaptation 15.evolution 16.death 17.reproduction 18.life-cycle. 

Biology  is the  natural science  that studies  life  and living  organisms , including their  physical structure ,  chemical processes ,  molecular interactions ,  physiological mechanisms ,  development  and  evolution . [1]  Despite the complexity of the science, certain unifying concepts consolidate it into a single, coherent field. Biology recognizes the  cell  as the basic unit of life,  genes  as the basic unit of  heredity , and  evolution  as the engine that propels the  creation  and  extinction  of  species .  Living organisms  are  open systems  that survive by transforming  energy  and decreasing their local  entropy [2]  to maintain a stable and vital condition defined as  homeostasis . [3] Biology deals with the study of  life  and  organisms . top:  E. coli  bacteria  a...